Ohio State University, Ph.D., Quantitative Psychology, 2005
Ohio State University, M.A., Quantitative Psychology, 2002
West Chester University, B.A., Psychology, 2000
My research focuses on applying decision psychology and behavioral economics to inform practical problems in medical decision making. In particular, my work has applied research about judgment and decision making to the design of patient decision support tools. I am particularly interested in how the inclusion of different elements in patient decision aids either support or bias patients’ decision making processes. Previous research has focused on the impact of patient narratives in decision aids, attitudes towards the use of clinical decision support systems in medicine, and the behavioral economics of noncash incentives.
I am a Quantitative Psychologist with a background in decision theory. In my doctoral program, I received extensive training in experimental methodology, survey research, and statistics. I am currently appointed as a Professor in the Quantitative division of the Department of Psychological Sciences at the University of Missouri. I am one of the core faculty providing statistical instruction to the doctoral students in our PhD program. While I have strong training in quantitative methods, my substantive research focuses on identifying and testing methods to improve health communication and the quality of decision making in healthcare.
Professional Activities
- Associate Editor, Medical Decision Making
- Associate Editor, Medical Decision Making Policy & Practice
Board Membership
- President-Elect, Society for Medical Decision Making (10/23 to 10/24)
- Vice President, Society for Medical Decision Making (10/21-10/23)
- Trustee, Society for Medical Decision Making (10/18 to 10/21)
Valentine, K. D., Shaffer, V. A., & Hauber, B. (2023). Eliciting preferences for cancer screening tests: Comparison of a discrete choice experiment and a threshold technique experiment. Patient Education & Counseling, 115, 107898. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2023.107898
Scherer, L. D., Shaffer, V. A., & Zikmund-Fisher, B. J. (2023). Maximizing-satisficing and medical maximizing-minimizing are related but distinct dispositions. Decisions, 10, 31-43. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/dec0000183
Shaffer, V. A., Wegier, P., Valentine, KD, Duan, S., Belden, J. L., Canfield, S. M., Popescu, M., Steege, L. M., & Koopman, R. J. (2022). Patient judgments about hypertension control: The role of patient numeracy and graph literacy. Journal of American Medical Informatics Association, 29(11), 1829-1837. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/jamia/ocac129
Valentine, K. D., Wegier, P., Shaffer, V. A., & Scherer, L. D. (2022). The impact of four risk communication interventions on cancer screening preferences and knowledge. Medical Decision Making, 42(3), 387-397. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0272989X211039743
Wegier, P., Belden, J. L., Canfield, S. M., Shaffer, V. A., Patil, S. A., LeFevre, M. L., … Koopman, R. D. (2021). Home blood pressure data visualization for the management of hypertension: Using human factors & design principles. BMC Medical Informatics & Decision Making, 21, 235. doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12911-021-01598-4
Shaffer, V. A., Brodney, S., Gavaruzi, T., Zisman-Ilani, Y., Munro, S., Smith, S., Thomas, E. Valentine, K. D., & Bekker, H. L. (2021). Do personal stories make decision aids more effective? An update from the International Patient Decision Aids Standards. Medical Decision Making, 41(7), 897-906. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0272989X211011100
Zikmund-Fisher, B. J., Shaffer, V. A., & Scherer, L. D. (2021). Promoting reflection on medical maximizing-minimizing preferences may create undesired effects on decisions about low-benefit and high-benefit care. Medical Decision Making Policy & Practice, 6, 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1177/2381468320987498
Thorpe, A., Scherer, A. M., Han, P. K., Burpo, N., Shaffer, V. A., Scherer, L. D., & Fagerlin, A. (2021) Exposure to common geographic maps with data about COVID-19 prevalence and US public knowledge, risk perceptions, and behavioral intentions. JAMA Network Open, 4, e2033538. doi: https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.33538
Koopman, R. J., Canfield, S. M., Belden, J. L., Wegier, P., Shaffer, V. A., Valentine, KD, Jain, A., Steege, L. M., Patil, S. J., Popescu, M., LeFevre, M. L. (2020). Home blood pressure data visualization for the management of hypertension: Designing for patient and physician information needs. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making, 20, 1-15. doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12911-020-01194-y
Shaffer, V. A., Wegier, P., Valentine, KD, Belden, J. L., Canfield, S. M., Popescu, M., Steege, L. M., Jain, A., & Koopman, R. J. (2020). Use of enhanced data visualization to improve patient judgments about hypertension control. Medical Decision Making, 40, 785-796. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0272989X20940999
Scherer, L. D., Shaffer, V. A., Caverly, T., DeWitt, J., & Zikmund-Fisher, B. J. (2020). Medical Maximizing-Minimizing predicts patient preferences for both high-benefit and low-benefit care. Medical Decision Making, 40, 72-80. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0272989X19891181
Shaffer, V. A., Bohanek, J., Focella, E. S., Horstman, H., & Saffran, L. (2019). Encouraging perspective taking: Using narrative writing to induce empathy for others engaging in negative health behaviors. PLoS One, 14 (10), e0224046. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0224046
Wegier, P., Armstrong, B. A., & Shaffer, V. A. (2019). Aiding Risk Information through learning via Simulated Experience (ARISE): A comparison of the communication of diagnostic screening test information in explicit and simulated formats. Medical Decision Making, 39, 196-207. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0272989X19832882
Shaffer, V. A., Wegier, P., Valentine, KD, Belden, J. L., Canfield, S. M., Patil, S. J., Popescu, M., Steege, L. M., Jain, A., & Koopman, R. J. (2019). Patient judgments about hypertension control: The role of variability, trends, and outliers, in blood pressure data. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 21, e11366. doi: https://www.jmir.org/2019/3/e11366/
Shaffer, V. A. & Zikmund-Fisher, B. J. (2018). Narratives in decision aids: A controversy. In G. Lucius-Hoene, T. Meyer, & C. Holmberg (Eds.), Illness Narratives in Practice. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Shaffer, V. A. & Scherer, L. D. (2018). Too much Medicine: Behavioral science insights on overutilization, overdiagnosis, and overtreatment in healthcare. Policy Insights from the Brain and Behavioral Sciences 5, 155-162. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2372732218786042
Scherer, L. D., Kullgren, J. T., Caverly, T., Scherer, A. M., Shaffer, V. A., Fagerlin, A., Zikmund-Fisher, B. J. (2018). Patient preferences for prostate specific antigen screening: The influence of both quantitative data and narrative stories. Medical Decision Making, 38, 708-718. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0272989X18782199
Shaffer, V. A., Focella, E. S., Hathaway, A., Scherer, L. D., & Zikmund-Fisher, B. J. (2018). On the usefulness of narratives: An interdisciplinary review and theoretical model. Annals of Behavioral Medicine. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/abm/kax008
Sepucha, K. R., Abhyankar, P., Hoffman, A. S., Bekker, H. L., LeBlanc, A., Levin, C. A., Ropka, M., Shaffer, V. A., Sheridan, S. L., Stacey, D., Stalmeier, P., Vo, H., Wills, C. E., & Thompson, R. (2018). Standards for UNiversal reporting of patient Decision Aid Evaluation studies: the development of the SUNDAE checklist. BMJ Quality & Safety, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjqs-2017-006986.
Hoffman, A. S., Sepucha, K. R., Abhyankar, P., Sheridan, S. L., Bekker, H. L., LeBlanc, A., Levin, C. A., Ropka, M., Shaffer, V. A., Stacey D., Stalmeier, P., Vo, H., Wills, C. W., & Thomson, R. G. (2018). BMJ Quality & Safety, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjqs-2017-006985.
Shaffer, V. A. (2017). Nudges for health policy: Effectiveness and limitations. Missouri Law Review, 82 (3); Article 11: 1-10. Available at: http://scholarship.law.missouri.edu/mlr/vol82/iss3/11
Weiger, P. & Shaffer, V. A. (2017). Aiding risk information learning through simulated experience (ARISE): Using simulated outcomes to improve understanding of conditional probabilities in prenatal Down syndrome screening. Patient Education & Counseling, 100, 1882-1889. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2017.04.016
Loewenstein, G., Hagmann, D., Schwartz, J., Ericson, K., Kessler, J. B., Bhargava, S., Blumenthal-Barby, J., D’Aunno, T., Handel, B., Kolstad, J., Nussbaum, D. Shaffer, V. A., Skinner, j. Ubel, P., & Zikmund-Fisher, B. J. (2017). A behavioral blueprint for improving health care policy. Behavioral Science & Policy, 3(1), 53-66. doi: https://doi.org/10.1353/bsp.2017.0005
Scherer, L. D., Shaffer, V. A., Caverly, T., Scherer, A. M., Zikmund-Fisher, B. J., Kullgren, J., & Fagerlin, A. (2017). The role of the Affect Heuristic and cancer anxiety in responding to negative information about medical tests. Psychology & Health, 1-21. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2017.1316848
Shaffer, V. A., Scherer, L. D., Focella, E. S., Hinnant, A., Len-Rios, M. E., Zikmund-Fisher, B. J. (2017). What is the story with narratives? How using personal narratives in journalism changes health behavior. Health Communication, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2017.1333562
Shaffer, V. A., Focella, E. S., Scherer, L. D., & Zikmund-Fisher, B. J. (2016). Debiasing affective forecasting errors with targeted, but not representative, experience narratives. Patient Education and Counseling, 99, 1611-1619. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2016.04.004
Scherer, L. D., Shaffer, V. A., Patel, N., & Zikmund-Fisher, B. J. (2016). Can the vaccine adverse event reporting system be used to increase vaccine acceptance and trust? Vaccine, 34 (21), 2424-2429. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.03.087
Focella, E. S., Zikmund-Fisher, B. J., & Shaffer, V. A. (2016). What can realistic previews do for physicians and patients? Applying realistic previews to increase adherence and patient satisfaction. Medical Decision Making, 36, 683-685. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0272989X16634086
Focella, E. S., Shaffer, V. A., Dannecker, E. A., Clark, M. J., & Schopp, L. H. (2015). Racial/ethnic differences in the use of primary care and preventative health services at a Midwestern university. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities. Advance online publication doi: 10.1007/s40615-015-0148-1
Shaffer, V. A., Templin, S., & Hulsey, L. (2014). The effect of narrative information in a patient decision aid for early stage breast cancer. Health Communication 29(1), 64-73. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2012.717341
Bekker, H.L., Winterbottom, A., Butow, P., Dillard A., Feldman-Stewart, D., Jibaja-Weiss, M., Shaffer, V A., Volk, R. (2013). Using personal stories. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making, 13 (Suppl2), S9. doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6947-13-S2-S9
Shaffer, V. A., Owens, J., & Zikmund-Fisher, B. J. (2013). The effects of patient narratives on information search in a web-based breast cancer decision aid: An eye-tracking study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 15(2), e273. doi: https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.2784
Shaffer, V. A., Hulsey, L., & Zikmund-Fisher, B. J. (2013). The effects of process-focused versus experience-focused narratives in a breast cancer decision task. Patient Education and Counseling, 93, 255-264. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2013.07.013
Probst, C. A., Shaffer, V. A., & Chan, R. Y. (2013). The impact of default choices in electronic medical records on clinical ordering practices. Health Psychology, 32, 995-1002. doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032925
Shaffer, V. A. & Zikmund-Fisher, B. J. (2013). All stories are not alike: A purpose-, content-, and valence-based taxonomy of patient narratives in decision aids. Medical Decision Making, 33, 4-13. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0272989X12463266
Shaffer, V. A., Probst, C. A., Merkle, E. C., Medow, M. A., & Arkes, H. R. (2013). Why do patients derogate physicians who use a computer-based diagnostic support system? Medical Decision Making, 33, 108-118. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0272989X12453501
Medow, M. A., Arkes, H. R., & Shaffer, V. A. (2010). Specialists or decision aids: Who/what is attended to more? Journal of General Internal Medicine, 25(4), 316-320. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-010-1251-y
Lambdin, C. G. & Shaffer, V. A. (2009). Are within-subjects designs transparent? Judgment and Decision Making, 4(7), 554-566.
Shaffer, V. A. & Arkes, H. R. (2009). Preference reversals in the evaluation of cash versus noncash incentives. Journal of Economic Psychology, 30, 859-872. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2009.08.001
Shaffer, V.A. & Hulsey, L. (2009). Are patient decision aids effective? Insight from revisiting the debate between correspondence and coherence theories of judgment. Judgment and Decision Making, 4 (2), 141-146.
Arkes, H. R., Shaffer, V. A. & Medow, M. A. (2008). The influence of a physician’s use of a diagnostic decision aid on the malpractice verdicts of mock jurors. Medical Decision Making, 28 (2), 201-208. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0272989X07313280
Arkes, H. R., Shaffer, V. A., & Medow, M. A. (2007). Patients derogate physicians who use a computer-assisted diagnostic aid. Medical Decision Making, 27 (2), 189-202. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0272989X06297391
Arkes, H. R., Shaffer, V. A., & Dawes, R. (2006). Comparing holistic and disaggregated ratings in the evaluation of scientific presentations. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 19, 429-439. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/bdm.503